The full text of these papers is available to members of the Australian Rangeland Society at http://www.publish.csiro.au/journals/trj

 Sifting the future from the past: a personal assessment of trends impacting the Australian rangelands

B. D. Foran

Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2000, Australia. Email: Foran@cres.anu.edu.au

Abstract. The fore-sighting exercise undertaken at the Australian Rangeland Society Conference at Port Augusta 10 years ago in 1996 developed four scenarios: ‘economic growth’, ‘best practice’, ‘extra green’ and ‘partial retreat’. These were later collapsed into two broad directions, ‘looking out’ (the economic rewards generated by a full application of free market policies with rangeland enterprises having strong external linkages will result in production and management efficiencies which benefit the Australian economy) and ‘looking in’ (rangeland Australia and its human, economic and ecological resources will be best served by the development and maintenance of strong local communities in each rangeland region). It was anticipated that ‘looking out’ would apply to only a few rangeland regions where pastoral production is highly valued and rangelands are resilient; ‘looking in’ would apply to the majority of the rangelands where other values might outweigh pastoral production in the future and where the rangeland resource is considered less resilient. Given the world’s embrace of economic and trade globalisation, and the dominance in the federal sphere of one coalition government and one prime minister, it seems inevitable that across Australia the last 10 years were dominated by the ‘looking out’ direction, while many marginal rangelands had few options but to ‘look in’. The 1996 discussions failed to appreciate fully the importance in shaping today’s world of singular issues such as terrorism, global climate change, potential disease pandemics, the emergence of China and India and, in an Australian rangelands context, the continuing success of the northern beef industry. In the interim, rangelands science has produced an impressive underpinning of integrative information led both by industry investment and government funding. However, long-term resilience is still not assured in many areas of Australia’s rangelands. It continues to be outpaced by those four horsemen of the (rangelands) apocalypse: the need for growth, periodic droughts, personal gain and introduced organisms. During the next 2 decades the rangelands will be buffeted by many of the same old issues and well as obvious emerging ones. Important human-centric ones will be the tension between European and Aboriginal demographic trends, the increased economic dominance of mining, tourism and defence in the rangelands, and the ‘sponge effect’ of successful towns and particular enterprises. Ecological and bio-physical issues will include carbon trading, energy generation, water catchments, weeds and diseases and agricultural incursions into the northern rangelands. The broad directions of ‘looking out’ and ‘looking in’ still retain some currency for today’s rangeland decision makers but are now embedded in far stronger and shifting currents that are frequently determined by global and national dynamics, rather than local issues. A distinguishing feature of the Australian rangelands is that they are still essentially intact (apart from their fauna) in a world context and may gain future ecological and economic advantage by remaining so. How to retain this status remains one of the great challenges for the next generation of Australian rangelanders.

L. I. PahlA, E, L. Z. WeierB, N. M. SallurC, A. L. BullC and B. M. HowardD

A Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, PO Box 102, Toowoomba, Qld 4350, Australia.
B Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, PO Box 519, Longreach, Qld 4730, Australia.
C Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, PO Box 282, Charleville, Qld 4470, Australia.
D URS Australia Pty Ltd Level 3, Hyatt Centre, 20 Terrace Road, East Perth, WA 6004, Australia.
E Corresponding author. Email: lester.pahl@dpi.qld.gov.au

Abstract. Pastoralists from 37 beef cattle and sheep properties in western Queensland developed and implemented an environmental management system (EMS) over 18 months. The EMS implemented by them was customised for the pastoral industry as part of a national EMS pilot project, and staff from this project encouraged and assisted pastoralists during this trial. The 31 pastoralists surveyed at the end of the pilot project identified few benefits of EMS implementation, and these were largely associated with environmental management and sustainability. In terms of the reasons for uptake of an EMS, these pastoralists identified drivers similar to those reported in other primary industry sectors. These included improving property and environmental management, financial incentives, a range of market benefits, assistance with red tape issues, access to other training opportunities and assistance and support with the development of their EMS. However, these drivers are weak, and are not motivating pastoralists to adopt an EMS. In contrast, barriers to adoption such as the time involved in developing and implementing EMS are tangible and immediate. Given a lack of effective drivers and that pastoralists are under considerable pressure from ongoing rural adjustment processes, it is not surprising that an EMS is a low priority. It is concluded that widespread uptake and on-going use of an EMS in the pastoral industry will not occur unless pastoralists are required or rewarded for this by markets, governments, financiers, and regional natural resource management bodies.

I. W. WatsonA, C, P. W. E. ThomasB and W. J. FletcherA

A Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia and Centre for Management of Arid Environments, PO Box 483, Northam, WA 6401, Australia.
B Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia and Centre for Management of Arid Environments, Locked Bag No. 4, Bentley Delivery Centre, WA 6983, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: iwatson@agric.wa.gov.au

Abstract. For the first time, a region-wide assessment of vegetation change across the southern shrublands of Western Australia is reported, using information from 965 shrubland sites of theWestern Australian Rangeland Monitoring System (WARMS). The majority of sites were installed between December 1993 and November 1999, and were reassessed between July 1999 and November 2005, with an average interval of just over 5 years. Shrub and tree species density, canopy area and species richness remained the same or increased on the majority of sites. The results were similar when considered at a species level, with most species showing an increase in density, canopy area and the number of sites on which they were found. Recruitment of new individuals to the population was commonplace on virtually all sites and for virtually all species. High rates of recruitment, on many sites, were observed for long-lived species such as Acacia aneura Benth., A. papyrocarpa Benth., Eremophila forrestii F.Muell. and Maireana sedifolia (F.Muell.) PaulG.Wilson. Increases in density, i.e.where recruitmentwas higher than mortality,were observed for many shorter lived specieswhich are known to decrease in response to excessive grazing (i.e. decreaser species) such as Ptilotus obovatus (Gaudich.) F.Muell., Atriplex vesicaria Benth., A. bunburyana F.Muell. and Maireana georgei (Diels) Paul G.Wilson. However, this result should be tempered by the understanding that acute degradation processes may still be occurring, especially within and surrounding drainage lines, which are away from where theWARMS sites are typically located. Grazing was implicated in decreased density on some sites, particularly those which had experienced below average seasonal conditions. On these sites, decreaser species were particularly affected.

R. JafariA, B, M. M. LewisA and B. OstendorfA

A School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5064, Australia.
B Corresponding author. Email: reza.jafari@student.adelaide.edu.au

Abstract. Vegetation indices are widely used for assessing and monitoring ecological variables such as vegetation cover, above-ground biomass and leaf area index. This study reviewed and evaluated different groups of vegetation indices for estimating vegetation cover in southern rangelands in South Australia. Slope-based, distance-based, orthogonal transformation and plant-water sensitive vegetation indiceswere calculated from Landsat thematic mapper (TM) image data and compared with vegetation cover estimates at monitoring points made during Pastoral Lease assessments. Relationships between various vegetation indices and vegetation cover were compared using simple linear regression at two different scales: within two contrasting land systems and across broader regional landscapes. Of the vegetation indices evaluated, stress related vegetation indices using red, near-infrared and mid-infrared TM bands consistently showed significant relationships with vegetation cover at both land system and landscape scales. Estimation of vegetation cover was more accurate within land systems than across broader regions. Total perennial and ephemeral plant cover was best predicted within land systems, while combined vegetation, plant litter and soil cryptogam crust cover was best predicted at landscape scale. These results provide a strong foundation for use of vegetation indices as an adjunct to field methods for assessing vegetation cover in southern Australia.

D. B. CoatesA, C and R. M. DixonB

A Davies Laboratory, CSIRO, PMB, PO, Aitkenvale, Townsville, Qld 4814, Australia.
B Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries, PO Box 6014, Rockhampton, Qld 4702, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: david.coates@csiro.au

Abstract. Frequent faecal near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (F.NIRS) analyses of faeces from cattle grazing a range of tropical pastures were used to measure the non-grass component, and other aspects, of their diets. Seasonal profiles of non-grass and crude protein in the diet are presented for nine sites from the speargrass, Aristida–Bothriochloa, and Mitchell grass dominated pasture regions, and for three shrubland sites where browse was plentiful. In grass-dominated native pastures of the speargrass and Aristida–Bothriochloa pasture regions of Queensland where little browse was available, non-grass was usually only 5–15% of the diet. Diet non-grass was even lower for a buffel grass pasture. In uncleared eucalypt woodland in the speargrass region, browse may have contributed up to 20% of the diet in the late dry season when grasses were senesced. In regions with abundant browse (e.g. mulga lands and desert upland systems) cattle preferentially selected actively growing grasses and forbs when they were available. With diminishing availability or declining quality of the forbs and grass due to grazing selection and dry conditions, browse increasingly contributed to intake. In Mitchell grass dominated pastures forbs often comprised more than 50% of the diet, and there appeared to be strong selection for forbs during the dry season. Where browse was available in association with Mitchell grass dominated pastures, it appeared to contribute to intake only in the late dry season. Dry season sampling in monsoonal tallgrass and Mitchell grass dominated pastures indicated dietary crude protein to be linearly correlated with diet non-grass, demonstrating the importance of non-grass in the prevention or alleviation of dry season protein deficiency in cattle. Changes in diet selected by cattle in relation to season and rainfall were generally in accord with the previous limited information, largely with sheep, in comparable vegetation systems. The results demonstrate the value of F.NIRS technology to assist understanding of diet selection by grazing cattle in northern Australia.

D. M. Anderson

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, Jornada Experimental Range, Box 30003, MSC 3JER, NMSU, Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003-8003, USA. Email: deanders@nmsu.edu

Abstract. Virtual fencing is a method of controlling animals without ground-based fencing. Control occurs by altering an animal’s behaviour through one or more sensory cues administered to the animal after it has attempted to penetrate an electronically-generated boundary. This boundary can be of any geometrical shape, and though unseen by the eye, is detected by a computer system worn by the animal. The most recent autonomous programmable systems use radio frequency (RF) signals, emanating from global positioning system (GPS) satellites to generate boundaries. Algorithms within a geographic information system (GIS) within the device’s computer use the GPS and other data to determine where on the animal a cue, or cues, should be applied and for how long. The first commercial virtual fencing system was patented in 1973 for controlling domestic dogs. Virtual fencing was used for the first time to control livestock in 1987. Since then proof-of-concept research using commercial, as well as custom designed systems have demonstrated that virtual fencing can successfully hold as well as move livestock over the landscape. Commercial virtual livestock control systems do not yet exist but research continues towards this goal. Pending research needs relating to this method of animal control are discussed in light of currently available technologies.

Douglas M. Veira

Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, PO Box 1000, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada V0M 1A0. Email: veirad@agr.gc.ca

Abstract. This paper examines some of the issues producers have in meeting the drinking water requirements of livestock on the Canadian prairies where they are dependent on varied ground and surface water sources. In supplying water for their cattle, producers often have problems that can affect their present and future operations. Water quality is one such problem as it can affect both the health and performance of livestock. The impact of the water quality in earthen reservoirs, the presence of sulphates in both surface and ground water, and toxins from cyanobacteria all have the potential to reduce herd productivity in the Canadian prairies. Another concern is the impact that grazing cattle can have on riparian vegetation, stream morphology, fish habitat and pollution of waterways. Damage is often caused by uncontrolled and season long grazing of cattle along water courses; options for controlling the damage are discussed. Finally, competition for a diminishing supply of water in the semi-arid Canadian prairies will become a major problem in the future. To remain viable and competitive, the livestock industry will have to develop and adopt strategies to address these issues.

John G. McIvor

CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia, Qld 4067, Australia. Email: john.mcivor@csiro.au

Abstract. The effects of a range of pasture management options (introduced legumes and grasses, superphosphate, timber treatment, cultivation before sowing and stocking rate) on the basal cover of perennial grasses were measured from 1982 to 1991 at two sites, ‘Hillgrove’ and ‘Cardigan’, near Charters Towers, in north-east Queensland. Colonisation and survival of eight native and exotic grasses were followed in permanent quadrats in a subset of treatments. Overall, there were significant changes in total basal cover of plots between years and with tree killing, but no significant differences in sown pastures, fertiliser or stocking rate. Basal cover increased when defoliation levels were less than 40% but increases were smaller at higher levels of defoliation and basal cover often declined when defoliation was greater than 60%. Basal cover declined when growing seasons were <10 weeks, remained static with 10–15 weeks growth, and increased when growing seasons were 16 weeks or longer. There was some colonisation in all years but large differences between years. The differences in colonisation between systems were generally small but there was a general trend for higher colonisation at higher stocking rates. Bothriochloa ewartiana (Domin) C.E.Hubb. and Chrysopogon fallax S.T.Blake had low, Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem.&Schult., Cenchrus ciliaris L. and Aristida spp. had intermediate, and Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A.Camus and Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy had high colonising ability. Survival of individual species was generally similar at both sites except for Urochloa mosambicensis. Heteropogon contortus and U. mosambicensis at ‘Hillgrove’ were short-lived (<10% survival after 4 years), B. ewartiana, Themeda triandra Forssk. and Aristida spp. had intermediate survival (10–50%), and C. ciliaris, C. fallax, B. pertusa and U. mosambicensis at ‘Cardigan’ were long-lived (>50% survival). Annual survival rates increased with plant age, were higher in good growing seasons than in poor seasons, were higher for large plants than small plants, and were lower at high defoliation levels than where defoliationwas less severe. The differences between species in ability to colonise and survive, and the small influence of management compared to seasonal effects on survival, are discussed to explain species performance in pastures.

J. W. Morgan

Department of Botany, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic. 3086, Australia. Email: J.Morgan@latrobe.edu.au

Abstract. The relationship between fire frequency (annual v. infrequent) and nitrogen (N) limitation to foliage production in a temperate native grassland community in western Victoria, Australia, was assessed over one growing season using a simple ammonium nitrate addition experiment. Fire history affected the magnitude of the vegetation responses to N addition. At the community level, mean live biomass in infrequently-burned grasslands declined by 20±8% in response to N addition. In contrast, mean biomass increased by 60±15% in annually-burned grasslands in response to N addition. Both grasses and forbs responded positively to N addition in annually-burned grasslands, with forbs responding more substantially than grasses. Foliage production in annually-burned native grasslands therefore appears to be constrained by N availability. The results of this study may have important implications for understanding species coexistence and invasion by non-native species in temperate native grasslands.

James C. NobleA, D, David S. HikB and Anthony R. E. SinclairC

A CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, GPO Box 284, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
B Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2E9, Canada.
C Centre for Biodiversity Research, 6270 University Boulevard, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
D Corresponding author. Email: jim.noble@csiro.au

Abstract. Prior to European settlement, medium-sized marsupials, especially bettongs (Bettongia spp.), were widely distributed across arid and semi-arid Australia. Most disappeared rapidly in the late 1800s in the earliest settled rangelands such as theWest Darling region of western New SouthWales following the spread of domestic herbivores, rabbit invasion, exotic predators and loss of habitat. Because the burrowing bettong (Bettongia lesueur) is the only fossorial macropod species, it left a clearly visible record of its past presence, distribution and habitat preferences in the form of substantial relict warrens, particularly in stony, ‘hard-red’ habitats. With the reduction in fire frequency because of excessive grazing pressures following European settlement in the 19th century, there was a rapid increase in the density of unpalatable native shrubs. We examine the hypothesis that periodic wildfires and browsing by bettongs were together able to regulate shrub densities in semi-arid rangelands in Australia. Information from various sources concerning the effects of fire, rainfall and browsing on the demography of shrubs was used to construct a model of shrub population dynamics. The model indicates the potential for two states for a given bettong density: first, a low shrub density maintained by a combination of periodic fire and bettong browsing; and second, a high shrub density in the absence of fire. These results have broad implications for pastoral and conservation management in Australian semi-arid rangelands.